Adenophora Triphylla

Adenophora triphylla is an important medicinal and food plant in East Asia, rich in secondary metabolites such as triterpenoid saponins, with reported anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anticancer, anti-obesity, and antifungal activities [PMID:38254948, PMID:31039428, PMID:34830415].

Adenophora triphylla (A. triphylla) is an important oriental herb belonging to the Campanulaceae family, widely used in traditional oriental medicine and the functional food industry in Korea, China, and Japan [PMID:33521275, PMID:40458424, PMID:31039428]. Its genome size is estimated at 2.6 Gb with 57,729 protein-coding genes, and phylogenetically it belongs to the Adenophora genus, most closely related to Adenophora divaricata [PMID:38254948, PMID:33521275].

A. triphylla is commonly used in food materials and oriental medicine as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antitussive, and is empirically used for controlling airway inflammatory diseases in folk medicine [PMID:19462329, PMID:26175774]. It is also used to treat or prevent bronchitis, cough, cancer, and obesity [PMID:31683541].

A. triphylla is rich in secondary metabolites including triterpenoid saponins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, polyacetylenes, polysaccharides, and alkaloids [PMID:38254948, PMID:40458424, PMID:39797591, PMID:41754647]. Specific compounds identified include lupenone, lupeol, taraxerol, beta-sitosterol, vanillin, linoleic acid, methyl adenophorate, triphyllol, adenophoride (a new phenylpropanoid), adenylene (a new polyacetylene), and various iminosugar alkaloids such as DMDP derivatives and 1-deoxynojirimycin [PMID:26175774, PMID:38338342, PMID:38675146, PMID:26614988, PMID:17401973, PMID:39797591, PMID:10703061, PMID:20457528]. A triterpenoid saponin named compound 1 (quillaic acid derivative) was isolated from the root [PMID:25146681].

The hexane fraction of A. triphylla root extract induces apoptosis in lung cancer cells by inactivating the Src/STAT3 pathway, and exhibits anti-angiogenic effects by decreasing phosphorylation of VEGFR2 and its downstream molecules [PMID:36305751, PMID:38338342]. Lupenone inhibits adipogenic differentiation through downregulation of PPARgamma and C/EBPalpha in 3T3-L1 cells [PMID:22848028]. Lupenone, lupeol, and taraxerol inhibit MUC5AC mucin gene expression and production induced by TNF-alpha, EGF, and PMA in airway epithelial cells [PMID:26175774]. The ethyl acetate fraction suppresses macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype by inhibiting STAT6 phosphorylation [PMID:31970023]. Vanillin promotes osteoblast differentiation via upregulation of BMP2, phospho-Smad1/5/8, and RUNX2 pathways [PMID:38675146]. A. triphylla extract inhibits Candida biofilm formation by blocking hyphal-related genes, extracellular matrix genes, Ras1-cAMP-PKA pathway genes, Cph2-Tec1 pathway genes, and MAP kinase genes [PMID:34830415]. The root ethanol extract shows anti-obesity effects through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action, increasing adiponectin, AMPK, and PPAR-alpha while decreasing TNF-alpha, GPDH, and PPAR-gamma [PMID:23470751].

ATE treatment inhibited lipid accumulation without cytotoxicity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes [PMID:26614988]. In vivo, AT was administered to rats at 5% or 1% pulverized AT in diet for 42 hours without reported adverse effects on gastric epithelial proliferation [PMID:11062747]. No systematic safety or adverse effect data from clinical trials are available in the provided abstracts.

A. triphylla var. japonica extract increased the antifungal susceptibility of miconazole against Candida from 37% to 99.05% reduction in fungal growth, suggesting a potential synergistic interaction with antifungal agents [PMID:34830415]. HAT attenuated erlotinib resistance in lung cancer cells, suggesting potential interaction with EGFR-targeted therapy [PMID:38338342].

In animal studies, AR powder was administered orally at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg once daily for 11 days [PMID:31039428]. ATE was administered at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg in HFD-induced obese mice [PMID:26614988]. ATREE was administered at 0.5% and 1% in high-fat diet in C57BL/6 mice [PMID:23470751]. No human clinical dosage data available. Consult a healthcare provider.

The evidence base for A. triphylla consists entirely of preclinical studies (in vitro and animal models), with no meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or human clinical trials identified. Evidence is strongest for anticancer (lung, gastric), anti-obesity, antitussive/anti-inflammatory, and antifungal activities, supported by multiple independent studies. Mechanistic data are available for several pathways including Src/STAT3, PPARgamma, VEGFR2, MUC5AC, and BMP2/RUNX2. Overall evidence strength is low (Level D), and clinical trials are needed to confirm efficacy and safety in humans.