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This sheet was compiled from PubMed (NIH) abstracts using AI assistance. Every factual claim is cited to a real PubMed article (see the source list). It has not yet been human-reviewed — confirm with a healthcare provider before use.
Compiled from 30 PubMed articles · model: gemma4:31b
Summary
Propolis, also known as 'bee glue,' is a resinous substance produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera) from plant exudates and bee secretions, possessing broad antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and therapeutic properties [PMID:34444754, PMID:36079680, PMID:33100868].
Background
Propolis is a sticky, resinous waxy substance produced by honeybees (Apis mellifera) by mixing exudates collected from botanical sources—such as tree buds, sap flows, leaves, branches, and barks—with their own saliva and beeswax [PMID:36079680, PMID:34444754]. It is used by bees as a building material to seal cracks and crevices in the hive and as a defensive substance to protect the colony against pathogens [PMID:30053651, PMID:36161253, PMID:31762646]. Its composition is highly complex and varies based on geographical region, botanical sources, climate, and harvesting season [PMID:36079680, PMID:36028892, PMID:34444688].
Traditional uses
Propolis has been used for centuries in traditional and folk medicine globally for treating purulent disorders, improving wound healing, and alleviating related discomforts [PMID:36028892, PMID:37570811, PMID:35754701].
Active compounds
Propolis contains over 300 identified compounds, including resins, volatiles, waxes, polyphenols, polysaccharides, and secondary metabolites [PMID:33100868, PMID:31762646]. Key chemical classes include phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, benzofurans, benzopyrene, and chalcones [PMID:36830794, PMID:27574655]. Specific active compounds mentioned include caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), artepillin C, and chrysin [PMID:35754701].
Mechanism of action
Propolis affects numerous signaling pathways regulating cellular processes [PMID:34444754]. In cancer cells, it can inhibit proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis while stimulating apoptosis [PMID:34444754]. Against protozoans like Leishmania, it inhibits promastigote proliferation and produces anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production, while increasing macrophage activation and the production of TLR-2, TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-17, and downregulating IL-12 [PMID:32691360]. It may also act synergistically with conventional antibiotics, antifungals, and antivirus drugs [PMID:35889466].
Clinical evidence
Evidence CBacterial Infections
Propolis demonstrates a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity, showing greater efficacy against Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus) than Gram-negative bacteria [PMID:31146392, PMID:37372501, PMID:2182860].
Evidence CCancer
Propolis and its compounds can inhibit proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells and stimulate apoptosis [PMID:34444754].
Evidence CWound Healing
Propolis possesses antiseptic, antimicrobial, and regenerative properties, making it a promising component for wound dressings to treat burns and ulcers [PMID:38151671, PMID:27574655].
Evidence CMild Cognitive Impairment
Brazilian green propolis has been found to improve cognitive functions in patients with mild cognitive impairments living at high altitude via antioxidant properties [PMID:34444688].
Evidence CProtozoan Infections
Propolis inhibits parasitemia in Plasmodium and Trypanosoma and inhibits promastigote proliferation in Leishmania [PMID:32691360].
Evidence C
Safety & adverse effects
Propolis can cause allergic reactions, including dermatitis [PMID:6220861] and erythema multiforme [PMID:33757675]. Some patients sensitive to propolis also show sensitivity to balsam of Peru, cinnamyl cinnamate, vanillin, benzyl cinnamate, and clove oil [PMID:6220861].
Drug interactions
Propolis may act synergistically with antibiotics, antifungals, and antivirus drugs, potentially allowing for lower doses of these medications to achieve higher antimicrobial effects [PMID:35889466].
Evidence summary
The majority of the provided evidence consists of reviews (Level C) and in vitro/animal studies (Level D), indicating a strong theoretical and experimental basis for its biological activities, but a lack of extensive clinical research on human effects [PMID:20970490].
2.PMID: 34444754 (2021) — Anticancer Activity of Propolis and Its Compounds. · Nutrients
3.PMID: 30053651 (2018) — The phytochemistry of the honeybee. · Phytochemistry
4.PMID: 36079680 (2022) — Plants: Sources of Diversity in Propolis Properties. · Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
5.PMID: 32691360 (2021) — Promising Anti-Protozoan Activities of Propolis (Bee Glue) as Natural Product: A Review. · Acta parasitologica
Government sources
No direct government monograph is available for this herb. The content below is AI-generated and has not been verified against an authoritative government source. Use the search links to check official sources before relying on this information.
15.PMID: 19554760 (2009) — Effects of stingless bee and honey bee propolis on four species of bacteria. · Genetics and molecular research : GMR
16.PMID: 31762646 (2019) — Composition and functional properties of propolis (bee glue): A review. · Saudi journal of biological sciences
17.PMID: 38048032 (2024) — First Proteome Analysis of Poplar-Type Propolis. · Plant foods for human nutrition (Dordrecht, Netherlands)
18.PMID: 38151671 (2023) — Applications of propolis-based materials in wound healing. · Archives of dermatological research
19.PMID: 34444688 (2021) — Experimental Evidence for Therapeutic Potentials of Propolis. · Nutrients
20.PMID: 33801571 (2021) — The Scent of Antifungal Propolis. · Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)
21.PMID: 35754488 (2022) — The Suitability of Propolis as a Bioactive Component of Biomaterials. · Frontiers in pharmacology
22.PMID: 35889466 (2022) — Perspectives for Uses of Propolis in Therapy against Infectious Diseases. · Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)
23.PMID: 36959133 (2023) — Propolis: Antineoplastic Activity, Constituents, and Mechanisms of Action. · Current topics in medicinal chemistry
24.PMID: 20970490 (2011) — Propolis: is there a potential for the development of new drugs? · Journal of ethnopharmacology
25.PMID: 33593461 (2021) — The effects of crude propolis, its volatiles and ethanolic extracts on the ecto-parasitic mite, Varroa destructor and health of the African savannah honey bee, Apis mellifera scutellata. · Parasitology
26.PMID: 34611369 (2021) — How diverse is the chemistry and plant origin of Brazilian propolis? · Apidologie
27.PMID: 27574655 (2015) — Propolis: a new frontier for wound healing? · Burns & trauma
28.PMID: 36830794 (2023) — Propolis and Their Active Constituents for Chronic Diseases. · Biomedicines
29.PMID: 42243173 (2026) — Caucasian and Egyptian chitosan/propolis nanocomposites inhibit deformed wing virus in Apis mellifera L. cell lines. · Scientific reports
30.PMID: 35754701 (2022) — An Insight into Anticancer Effect of Propolis and Its Constituents: A Review of Molecular Mechanisms. · Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM